African Countries E-Gov Challenges & Solutions

Challenge description

Telecommunications infrastructure is crucial in terms of successful performance of e-government platforms. It has an impact on the platform’s performance, including its speed and the frequency of shutdowns due to the poor connection. What is more, the state of telecommunications infrastructure development directly affects citizen engagement and service delivery.

The African telecommunications market in general is largely monopolistic, with the government holding control over the main actors. Still, the state does not have an essential resource base to invest in internet connection development in the remote areas.

As outlined in the AU Digital Strategy, telecommunications infrastructures “are still very precarious, given the lack of a balanced financing plan for their maintenance, development and renewal”.

The UN Telecommunication Infrastructure Index (TII), coined out in order to assess e-government development, is based on four key indicators, namely number of internet users per 100 inhabitants; number of mobile subscribers per 100 inhabitants; number of wireless broadband subscriptions per 100 inhabitants; and number of fixed broadband subscriptions per 100 inhabitants.

According to the UN E-Government Survey 2022, Mauritius had the highest TII rate in Africa (0.7588). The average rate for the continent is 0.41. The majority of landlocked countries have relatively small TII rates. For instance, Ethiopia (0.15), Niger (0.14), Chad (0.12), Central African Republic (0.08) and Uganda (0.25) are the least developed in terms of the necessary telecommunications infrastructure. Botswana is the leader among the landlocked countries, with the TII rate of 0.68, followed by Mali (0.44), Burkina Faso (0.393), Zambia (0.39) and Zimbabwe (0.38).

Investment and PPP

Allocating investment for telecoms infrastructure is among the key challenges, especially with other infrastructure sectors, like transport and energy, requiring their share of financing. The basic principle of public investment management postulates channeling public investment into the projects with lower returns, which ICT is not usually considered. According to different estimates, Africa requires investment of USD 130-170 billion annually to bridge the infrastructure gap.

As per ICA data, in 2020, infrastructure investment by 49 African governments totaled USD 33.4 billion. Out of this, national allocations to the ICT sector amounted to USD 0.9 billion or 3% of the total national investments.

Public-private partnership would be the solution, however, an uncertain policy environment and numerous political, currency and  risks associated with infrastructural projects drive private companies away. According to McKinsey research conducted in 2020, even though there is a plethora of actors willing to invest in infrastructure in Africa, 80% of infrastructural projects in the region fail at the feasibility and business-plan stages, and only 10% reach the financial closure. This exerts high financial pressure on infrastructure developers. Such a low success rate is the result of regulatory, political, planning and negotiation shortfalls (for instance, delays in obtaining licenses and permits and lack of long-term planning leading to preferential investment in low-impact and short-term projects).

The World Bank estimates of public-private investment in ICT in selected African countries shows that there are great regional disparities: South Africa is the leader among countries with data available for 2022 with USD 198.5 million, whilst for DRC the value was estimated at USD 21 million, for Nigeria it was USD 100.2 million.

Globally, as of 2023, ICT and telecoms account for 10% of all PPP projects.

Electricity

According to Africa Energy Outlook 2022, 600 million people, comprising 43% of the population of Sub-Saharan Africa, do not have access to electricity. Ghana, Kenya and Rwanda are highlighted as successful in terms of universal connectivity development.

Electrification rates in Africa are estimated to be the lowest in the world. A significant disparity is seen between the subregions. Northern Africa has a stable access to electricity, with an electrification rate of 99% (2020). On the other hand, in 2021, the access to electricity in Sub-Saharan Africa stood at 50.6%, with 80.7% in urban and 30.4% in rural areas.

As of 2021, the largest sources of electricity generation in Africa were natural gas (42%) and coal (28%). Renewable energy sources are yet not popular. Hydropower is the most common source, with 17.5% of electricity being generated from it.

The Africa Energy Outlook 2022 outlines that the continent possesses 60% of the world’s most efficient solar power resources, however the existing solar power plants capacity is 1%.

The same year, total electricity consumption per capita in Africa stood at 0.636 megawatt hours (MWh), which is 81% lower than the global average of 3.358 MWh. Libya was the continental leader, with the electricity consumption rate per capita of 3.793. Due to the population growth, the figures have recently declined, and are projected to recuperate to 2010s rates not earlier than in 2026. As of 2023, the UN found that the average figure for energy consumption per capita in sub-Saharan Africa stood at 200 kilowatt hours (kWh) of electricity per year. In contrast, 1,442 kWh per capita are being consumed in North African countries. Inhabitants of rural areas utilize 50 kWh annually.

Undersea and terrestrial fiber optic cables

Based on the Network Startup Resource Center (NSRC) data, 39 African countries are connected to already operational and/or planned terrestrial fiber optic cables. As of 2021, roughly 57% of the population of Sub-Saharan Africa lived in the area covered by fiber optic networks. The cables predominantly bring connectivity to coastal areas. Despite the advances in fiber-optic technology, the cables are unavailable in the African mainland.

As plenty of IT content comes from outside, and both state and private platforms are located on foreign servers and data centers, subsea cables transmit vast amounts of critical and vulnerable data. Cable interference can result in shutdowns of e-government platforms, if the content is stored outside. Privacy issues arise as well.

Nevertheless, due to cable failures that have been reported to happen during the recent years, with the last one detected in March 2024, a vast number of the continent’s population could be left without internet connection. Among the cables where operational declines occurred are SAT-3/West Africa Cable System (WACS), the Africa Coast to Europe (ACE), MainOne, EIG, Seacom, AAE-1. The connection was cut off for hundreds of inhabitants of West and Central Africa.

Telecom Towers

The majority of the African population goes online and performs business operations via mobile phones, as this type of apparel is far more affordable than personal computers, wireless connectivity services are deemed to be of the utmost importance. The number of 5G mobile subscriptions in Sub-Saharan Africa is projected to grow exponentially, with 7.24 million in 2023 and 104.43 in 2027.

In 2023, the Telecom Towers market size in Africa was estimated to comprise 199 thousand units, and is projected to extend up to 208 thousand units by the end of 2024. The major actors on the market are IHS Towers, headquartered in the United Kingdom and present in Cameroon, Côte d’Ivoire, Nigeria, Rwanda, South Africa and Zambia; American Tower Corporation (Ghana, Burkina Faso, Niger, Nigeria, Kenya, Uganda, South Africa); a british Helios Towers (Tanzania, Senegal, Malawi, DRC, Republic of Congo, Ghana, South Africa, Madagascar. South African Eskom Holdings Limited and Zambian-based ZESCO Limited, both being governmentally-owned, are also among the key actors.

Based on TowerXchange calculations, Nigeria has the largest telecom towers market size in Sub-Saharan Africa, with 39,5 thousand towers as of 2023, then followed by South Africa (24,9 thousand) and Ethiopia (10,2 thousand). The lowest presence of teletowers is in Namibia (881), Gabon (993) and Republic of Congo (1070).

The use of 2G/3G/4G and 5G in Sub-Saharan Africa in 2022 is 1.81 exabytes and 0.02 respectively. As of 2023, 27 mobile operators have already made 5G services available. According to GSMA, commercial 5G networks are now live in Botswana, Ethiopia, Gambia, Togo, Nigeria, Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Mozambique, South Africa, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Madagascar, Mauritius and Seychelles.

In 2022, 4G networks comprised 35% of total internet connections. By 2026, it is forecasted to become the most widely adopted technology, exceeding 3G, which now is the most common. In 2022, the number of 3G connections was over 50% of total.

According to ITU, in 2022, 50% of the continent’s population was covered by 4G networks, 33% could only access 3G networks, and 9% was in the zone of 2G. Almost 50% of the rural population is covered by 3G, compared to 25% covered by 4G networks. The majority of urban population (84%) is able to access 4G networks.

Satellites

Satellite internet in Africa is largely maintained by Intelsat, a multinational satellite communications provider headquartered in the US, and Africa Mobile Networks (AMN), a group of companies operating in Africa with head office in the UK. Since 2018, the companies have implemented over 3 thousands rural base satellite antennas across the continent. Nigeria is the companies’ largest site, where over 1,350 satellite antennas are deployed. AMN alone covers 15 African countries, providing the population living in rural areas with 2G, 3G and 4G connection.

In general, such satellite internet communication services as VSAT (Very Small Aperture Terminal) are primarily offered by international private companies. In 2022, the market size was estimated to be USD 525 million, and is forecasted to reach Compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 8.6% over the period from 2022 to 2030. It is notable that VSAT market development is led by the oil, gas and marine sectors. According to Africa VSAT Market Size and Forecasts (2020-2030), GlobalTT (Belgium), NTvsat (Germany), Talia Communications Limited (UK), Afrikanet Oxford Consultech Limited (UK), Norsat International Inc. (Canada), Sandstream Telecoms (South Africa), VSATmena FZCO (UAE), EchoStar Corporation (US) and Link Communications Systems (UK) are the leaders on the market.

VSAT technology includes C-Band, which is a viable option for remote areas where fiber optic and cable infrastructure is inaccessible, and is resistant to various weather conditions; Ku-Band, predominantly used by households and small businesses residing in urban areas; and Ka-Band, which provides the fastest connection levels, however is vulnerable to adverse weather conditions. The projected trend in terms of the technology use is telemedicine, especially in the remote rural areas.

Land-locked countries

Land-locked countries are cut off from undersea cables, which hampers the development of connectivity services. Satellite internet is the most viable opportunity.

According to the ITU, the main obstacles of remote areas and landlocked countries regarding internet connectivity incorporate the low return of investment by Operators and Tower companies, as these areas usually lack sustainable electric power connectivity which is essential for internet connection, which creates additional costs on installation of power plants, increasing the final cost of the internet. Furthermore, licensing frameworks and application processes are opaque, along with lacking fiscal incentives, which makes the areas unfavorable for business operators.

The issues highlighted above result in low internet affordability, as well as small return on investment (ROI).

Solutions

Improving electricity access:

• Increasing the number of national grids is the most cost-effective option for improving access to electricity. Mini-grids and solar-based stand-alone systems are referred to as the most efficient options.
• Increasing the use of renewable energy, such as hydropower and solar energy, as well as implementing grid interconnections. Cost-effective, ecologically friendly. Lots of resources.
• Regulatory reforms, including the cost-of-service electricity pricing reforms for the energy sector. Now exist or planned in 24 African countries (not disclosed). Appropriate rate and tariff systems can ensure the profit of private operators, and reduce risks.
• Energy deregulation will increase private sector engagement and competition, as well as reduce costs.

Enhancing Internet penetration:

• The AU Digital Strategy highlighted the ‘need to focus on leveraging public-private partnerships and the channeling of public resources through the private sector in order to build digital infrastructure at national and regional levels and scale up digital services and competitiveness in the Continent’. International partnerships can also provide access to best international practices. 

Experience of the leading Russian developer and manufacturer of telecommunications equipment T8 provides an example. The company has extensive experience in deploying DWDM telecommunication equipment and innovative solutions for fiber-optic communication lines in Russia and countries all over the world. T8 offers comprehensive solutions for building DWDM-networks: design, supply, equipment installation and maintenance, training. 

Among its solutions are: backbone DWDM networks which work on old and new fiber (Volga DWDM platform), regional and metro DWDM networks which work on foreign wavelengths, solutions for monitoring of the optical infrastructure, DCI equipment for data centers, 5G transport networks, Alien Wavelength technology, early detection systems for critical infrastructure objects (Distributed Acoustic Sensor Dunay).

T8 invests in improving ICT infrastructure worldwide and in the African region in particular. For now, it already exports equipment to South Africa, Republic of Congo and Ethiopia. Moreover, the transnational park Limpopo in South Africa and critical infrastructure in Tunisia are equipped with DAS Dunay. The system is being produced and installed by T8 SENSOR, a company for the development and manufacturing of fiber optic sensor systems. T8’s solutions were also presented at numerous international and African forums, including AFRIСACOM 2017, Cairo ICT 2022, GITEX 2023.

• Governments should “invest in investing” and improve public financing management as well as facilitate private investments through establishing a clear PPP regulatory framework, simplifying permit acquisition, reducing legal, operational, political and currency risks, enhancing commercial viability of projects, driving collaboration with national and international financial institutions.
• According to ITU, in order to expand internet connectivity in landlocked countries and remote areas, adequate licensing framework guidelines ought to be provided to attract investment. Improving and increasing transparency in operator’s license obtainment is also crucial. 
• Fixed wireless access (FWA) is a wireless technology that uses radio frequencies instead of fiber which is useful for rural areas. However, the solution has not gained wide popularity because of the high cost of deployment.
• Portable solutions like ‘Internet-in-a-box’ can also be an alternative, providing access to all sorts of data without Internet connection: including videos, photos, medical or any other information.

Regional telecommunications infrastructure policies can help establish robust and interoperable cross-border infrastructure as well as facilitate resource allocation and allow to benefit from the economy of scales. Some regional plans have already been adopted including Southern African Development Community (SADC): Regional Infrastructure Development Master Plan (to be implemented by 2027), East African Community (EAC): EAC Broadband ICT Infrastructure Network, Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS): ICT Strategy 2018–2023, Arab Maghreb Union (UMA): Broadband Optical Fibre Telecommunication Network initiative.

Alternatives:

Whilst building new infrastructure may exert significant pressure on public finances, there are alternative, cost-cutting approaches. For instance, governments can provide non-grid energy sources (solar panels, electricity generators) and FWAs to public facilities in non-electrified areas (e.g. for schools, hospitals, post offices, etc.). This way, public establishments can serve as points of access to the cyberworld even if the area is not electrified and does not have an Internet connection.

In the cases section we also present practices of sending buses equipped with electricity generators, Internet connection and ICT devices in remote areas to provide temporary access to the Net.

Challenge Description

Taking into account the high cost and low affordability of PCs coupled with poverty (according to the UNCTAD 2021 estimations, nearly 490 million people in Africa lived under the poverty line of 1.9 PPP$ per day), computer classes in schools remain one of the few opportunities to introduce children to computing and digital literacy.

This is a top priority both at the national and at the regional levels given the large share of youth in Africa (more than 60% of the total population is under 25) and the increasing demand for a digitally skilled workforce. According to the 2019 IFC report, more than 230 million jobs will require some digital skills, whilst other researches, like the one conducted by the Boston Consulting Group (BCG), forecast even higher values (some 650 million jobs). According to the joint study by the IFC and the World Bank, the demand for digitally skilled workforce in 5 countries – Nigeria, Kenya, Côte d’Ivoir, Mozambique, and Rwanda will exceed 57 million jobs by 2030.

Thus, in the AU Digital Transformation Strategy for Africa for the period 2020-2030 developing digital skills is indicated among the foundation pillars for successful digital transformation of the continent. With this target, the Strategy includes provision of adequate technology equipment for educational institutions.

With understanding of the aforementioned, many African countries are introducing smart classrooms in schools and universities with the aim of integrating IT at all levels of education, including the non-IT subjects, and developing IT-literate workforce. The Kenyan (in partnership with Devotra and CreateView Edu-Tech Co. Ltd) and the Rwandan (in collaboration with UNICEF and Microsoft) initiatives serve as examples.

However, the lack of infrastructure, unequal distribution of Internet access along with unstable electricity supply hinder the digitalisation of schools and promotion of digital literacy as well as deprive children of information and learning opportunities. Based on the latest available data presented by the African Development Bank, more than 40% of Africans (or 640 million people) do not have access to electricity (about 85% of urban dwellers have access to electricity whereas in rural areas the value stands at 35%). In Sub-Saharan Africa, according to the 2023 UNCTAD report, the share of the population with no access to electricity exceeds 50%.

Apart from the general lack of access to electricity in schools (the 2017 UNESCO Institute for Statistics study indicated that only 35% primary schools in Sub-Saharan Africa had access to electricity), erratic power supply and widespread grid outages remain a frequent challenge for most households and institutions. As per the 2022 report by Afrobarometer, only 43% of the respondents have a relatively stable electricity supply. The value varies greatly (e.g., 98% in Mauritius and 5% in Malawi), and for rural areas it stands at 24%.

This, in particular, played a crucial role during the COVID-19 pandemic leading to disruption of the learning process in African countries and failure to provide online classes for students. Unequal access to electricity in case of education also exacerbates social inequalities in the long-term.

Solutions

While the power supply within a country rests in a energy/power ministry mandate and the power supply to schools in particular is the ministries of education concern, a ministry/agency responsible for the digital development is advised to develop and introduce the unified and flexible technical requirements for the digitization of schools enabling them to cope with challenges.

The requirements enabling cost reduction and energy-saving will facilitate fundraising for the schools digitization widening also the range of affordable technical solutions for the power supply of schools.

Among the solutions available is the autonomous solar generation along with other renewable energy sources, both in combination with fuel cells and using conventional batteries as storage devices.

Power of solar units is limited and imposes tight restrictions on the amount of devices in use. While the average computer consumes 200 watts per hour (160 watts system unit and 40 watts monitor), the power of the units does not exceed 3 kW which is enough to support no more than 15 computers at once. Some solutions, like ASTER multiseat software, address this challenge by allocating computer resources according to the needs of users connected to it. Since the power of modern computers in most cases is excessive for a single user, a multi-user system can be set up based on one computer.

• Applying for international assistance programmes can help allocate the funding required for providing schools with equipment and technologies.

• Regional integration of national utilities and electricity networks is also among the possible solutions to the challenge as African countries are endowed with diversified and affordable renewable energy sources (e.g., apart from the high levels of solar radiation in Southern Africa and Sahel, hydropower in Côte d’Ivoire, Democratic Republic of Congo, Guinea, Ethiopia, Mali, Mozambique, Uganda, and Zambia). Synchronisation of national power systems could not only cut costs of power transmission, but also contribute to the reliability of energy systems and foster implementation of joint energy projects. However, until now national power grids are rarely synchronised.

• Establishing a mutually beneficial public-private partnership in the field as well as granting an enabling environment and incentives for investors and private business can boost school electrification and digitalisation as well.

Russia’s Experience

To spur the digitalisation of education, a number of initiatives were adopted by the government, including the government project “Digital Educational Environment” developed in 2019 and the national programme “Digital Economy of the Russian Federation”. As a result, over the period 2021-2022 IT infrastructure was provided for more than 9 thousand educational organisations, over 31 thousand surveillance cameras and 9 thousand video recorders were installed.

The national information system My school was implemented under the “Digital Educational Environment” project as well. The system allows access to personal accounts, grades, assignments, a unified e-library which offers students books and online classes, as of today over 6.5 thousand educational materials were published. Moscow E-School is also worth mentioning among the cutting-edge IT solutions for schools.

[Power Supply in Russia]

Whilst, according to the World Bank, the rate of electrification in Russia stands at 100%, to achieve this goal in 1998-2008 the Russian Electricity Reform was conducted with a focus on developing institutional and regulatory frameworks, attracting private investment to the sector, and stimulating commissioning the required generating capacity and market competition. The 2001 Decision “On the Restructuring of the Russian Federation Unified Energy System” resulted in launching the Unified Energy System (UES) which today consists of 71 regional energy systems forming seven interconnected power systems. The UES includes 911 power plants with a capacity of more than 5 MW each. 

As of 2022, hydroelectric power stations accounted for about 19% of energy generated in the UES. Over the period 2008-2022 hydroelectric power generation increased by 26% reaching 52 754 MW. The installed capacity of solar power plants reached 1948 MW in 2022, while wind power plants capacity exceeded 2000 MW. The government, as stated in the Energy Strategy to 2035, is committed to developing policies and environment that support investment in the sector, innovations, and education with the aim of increasing the share of renewable energy. 

Power provision for social facilities including schools and kindergartens, especially in rural areas, is among the priorities (e.g., latest cases in Belgorod and Tyumen Regions).

Russia also has extensive experience in regional energy cooperation, given that the Russian UES operates in connection with the power grids of Azerbaijan, Belarus, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Latvia, Lithuania, Mongolia, and Estonia. With DC lines the electricity from Russia is transmitted to the power grids of China (through the 500 kV Amurskaya – Heihe line), Kazakhstan, Mongolia, and other countries.

Author:

Olesya Kalashnik, research fellow

[Read more in the handbook E-Governance in Africa 2024]

Challenge description

Africa is home to 25% of all mammal species and 20% of all bird species. 23% of the continent is covered by forests and woodlands, and nearly 33% of all Earth’s rainforests are located here. The Congo Basin rainforest is the second largest rainforest in the world (after the Amazon) and absorbs 1.5 million tonnes of CO2 annually, which is more than Africa’s entire fuel and energy sector (1.3 million tonnes in 2021; however, since the 2010s, the concerns over rainforests losing their ability to capture CO2 were expressed by scientists and today they are becoming more alarming). The Gulf of Guinea is home to the world’s second most productive marine ecosystem. Africa’s biodiversity plays an important role in the sustainable development of the whole planet and – traditional communities in rural areas.

Although the main responsibility for the deterioration of the global environment lies with the West and other industrialised economies, African countries are on the front lines of encountering the devastating consequences of the climate changes.

At the recent COP27 Summit in 2022 in Egypt Senegal’s environment minister Abdou Karim Sall highlighted: ‘the least developed countries are bearing the brunt of the devastating consequences of climate change’. Therefore, African nations rightfully demand ‘climate justice’ and ‘loss and damage’ compensation from developed countries at COP27 Summits.

Overall, African nations are severely exposed to climate and environmental hazards, such as natural disasters. According to UNICEF, this factor amounted to 6.4 (group of high severity), with all the top-10 places in the ranking being occupied by African countries. However, not only the level of exposure is important, but also mechanisms of resilience, adaptation and support of the populations. UNICEF measured the impact of environmental change on children and other vulnerable groups, and in Africa the Children’s Climate Risk Index value reached 6.8 indicating high vulnerability.

More than 60% of Africa’s rural population depends entirely on ecosystems to meet their needs for food, water and heat. At the same time, conservation of natural wealth is key to the development of the tourism sector, which accounted for about 9% of the continent’s GDP before the pandemic in 2019. Environmental degradation leads to job losses in rural areas, increased internal migration, and social and ethnic tensions in cities. Climate change, destruction of traditional habitats and biodiversity and water scarcity will intensify and be seen as key issues by citizens and the political class.

Finding a balance between preserving the environment in a sustainable form and development is an important part of the agenda for local authorities and communities, as well as for intergovernmental alliances. 

Pursuing their own climate and political agendas, external actors, like NGOs and the World Bank, tend to promote limitations for the industrial and infrastructural development of African nations. At the same time they often intend to limit their ability of taking sovereign decisions with tangible environmental impact, claiming the internationalisation of the impact implies the internationalisation of the decision-making. 

Strengthening environmental monitoring and control systems is an indispensable means to steer the process and enable the grounded decision-making on the national level. Therefore, the issue of preserving the sovereignty of countries in environmental management has come to the fore. African governments are gradually begin to collect and accumulate their own data on the environmental situation in order to enable disaster warning and effective response and recovery mechanisms as well as to prevent data manipulation by external actors. 

Thus, in 2022, the institutional and operational framework for the Multi-Hazard Early Warning and Early Action System (MHEWAS) was approved at the 35th Assembly of AU Heads of State and Government. The framework was developed by the CIMA Foundation with assistance from the UNDP under the Sahel Resilience Project and offers detailed guidance for a seven-year initiative to implement early warning and action on natural disasters. The African Union also developed the ten-year Climate Change and Resilient Development Strategy and Action Plan (2022-2032). In 2022, Felipe Jacinto Nyusi, the President of the Republic of Mozambique, was appointed the African Union Champion for Disaster Risk Management.

Being among the most severely affected by climate-related hazards regions (for instance, tropical cyclones regularly wreck Mozambique, Malawi and Madagascar), the Southern African Development Community adopted the Maputo Declaration on the Commitment by SADC to enhance Early Warning and Early Action in the Region in September 2022. Recognising all previous initiatives and committing to fully support early warning in the region, the declaration urged international partners of SADC (e.g. UN agencies, funds, inter-governmental institutions) to continue their collaboration with regional organisations in order to facilitate adaptation to the changed environment and strengthen the resilience of member states.

The international community has also recognised the progress made by African countries in the sphere. In 2023, the South African non-profit Association for Water and Rural Development (AWARD) won the RISK Award of EUR 100,000 provided by the UN Office for Disaster Risk Reduction and the Munich Re Foundation for its water resources early warning system in the Inkomati Basin.

International partners have also developed numerous assistance initiatives such as the joint initiative of the African Union Commission (AUC) and the European Union, Global Monitoring for Environment and Security and Africa (GMES & Africa), launched in 2006. Other examples are the Hydromet Africa Programme, which aims to address gaps in hydro-meteorological observation networks, telecommunications and climate data and weather systems, and the Weather and Climate Information Services for Africa (WISER) programme, utilised to encourage the use of climate information by policymakers. In 2017, FAO and the World Meteorological Organization initiated the Digital Innovation to Tackle Climate Change Project in Rwanda and Senegal, aiming to bolster their ability to provide meteorological and climatological forecasts relevant to the agricultural sector and enable farmers and fishers to easily access this vital information.

Wildfires and deforestation

Another important point for the African region is the application of technologies for monitoring and identification of forest fires, which can significantly damage local ecosystems. One of the countries that regularly faces this problem is South Africa, where fires occur with unenviable regularity, for example, in the Table Mountain National Park area. In this century alone, fires have occurred in this area in 2000, 2006, 2009, and 2021. A private company from South Africa, Envirovision Solutions, has developed a special system to respond to forest fires in a timely manner. The system is called ForestWatch and has long been actively used by the South African authorities.

The spread of such technology is also relevant for other countries as the population from the North part of Africa also suffers from fires. In Algeria, for example, about 150 thousand hectares of forest were destroyed by fires between 2001 and 2022.

Controlling deforestation is crucial both for the conservation of flora and forest-dwelling fauna and in the context of air pollution and the previously mentioned water scarcity problem, as forests are also important water-storing watersheds. Thus, as a consequence, lack of prudence in logging leads to a reduction in water reserves in the country. Furthermore, forests often serve as a barrier to natural disasters such as floods and mudslides. At the same time, in Kenya, for example, the Mau forest, with an area of 2,700 square kilometers, has shrunk by 20% over the last 20 years.

Air pollution

Africa is responsible for 6% of total greenhouse gas and 4% of CO2 emissions in the world.   However, it is estimated that about 1.1 million people die each year in Africa because of polluted air. According to IQ-AIR, in 2022, in six countries with a total population of about 420 million people, PM2.5 levels exceeded the permissible values by more than seven times (in Chad, the exceedance was 18 times). That said, monitoring of air pollution levels is still rather poorly developed on the continent. Only seven out of 54 countries conduct real-time monitoring. However, the paucity of data does not negate the dire environmental situation in a number of countries.

Water monitoring

According to WHO, water scarcity affects one in three people on the African continent. A study by the United Nations University Institute for Water, Environment and Health showed that 19 out of 54 countries in Africa have water security levels below the maximum safe level and the amount of renewable internal freshwater resources per capita in Sub-Saharan Africa has been constantly declining exacerbating the problem of water security. This is also due to the rapid population growth rate of the region (about 3% per year).

The depletion of water resources jeopardizes the future of several economic sectors in Africa, but most importantly, the lives of Africans themselves. Thus, due to water scarcity, people are forced to use water even from polluted reservoirs, which leads to an increase in the number of diseases such as cholera, typhoid, salmonellosis, etc. Together with low access to health care (only 48% of Africans have access to it), this leads to a situation where, for example, about 600,000 people die every year in sub-Saharan Africa due to diarrheal diseases. Water scarcity also causes and ignites inter- and intra-national contradictions about access to the resource (e.g. the confrontation between Ethiopia and Egypt over the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam). Dumping of toxic waste, oil spills and degradation of the marine environment have threatened African water resources as well. For instance, Nigeria’s National Oil Spill Detection and Response Agency (NOSDRA) collected around 11,585 publicly available spill records from 2010 to 2022, totaling around 2,651 full oil tanker trucks spewed into the environment. Under these conditions, monitoring of changes in the volume and quality of water resources becomes extremely necessary.

Groundwater is an essential component of water resources. To monitor them, there are various public and private aquifer monitoring initiatives in many African countries. There are programmes both to monitor water levels and to track the temperature and chemical composition of groundwater.

The typical groundwater monitoring system is based on exploratory wells where data is collected. Piezometers are typically used to monitor water levels. Data collection systems include both instruments with automatic transmission of information and less digitised variants that require manual data acquisition performed by the operator and subsequent uploading of data into the system. Data may be captured first in excel files and then, after validation, transformed into online database elements that can be conveniently displayed on maps (as in Malawi), or they may be directly transferred to Internet database resources (as in South Africa). The frequency with which information is updated varies. Even within a single system, some data may be transmitted instantaneously, another part of data may be collected by telemetry on a daily basis, and the last part may be uploaded quarterly (GROWAS2 in Namibia works in this way). In most African countries, this information is not publicly available. There are exceptions, such as the display of groundwater data for Guinea-Bissau on the MWater Portal map.

Groundwater adequacy can also be monitored not only by monitoring the water level in the well, but also by analyzing the flow rate at groundwater-fed springs. An example of such a combined system is the network of 130 analyzed springs and 60 wells in Lesotho.

Droughts

Drought is also a threat to flora and agriculture. To date, there has been very little digitalised monitoring of this aspect in the African region. Although at the same time, drought has been the cause of major humanitarian disasters in Africa, particularly in the Horn of Africa. Droughts lead to agricultural problems, withering crops and livestock mortality. For example, in 2022, the worst drought since 1981 affected at least 18 million people in Ethiopia, Somalia and Kenya, of whom some 16.7 million people faced the loss of subsistence resources – other than humanitarian aid – and starvation.

Cyclones

As climate change makes tropical cyclones stronger and less predictable (the warming generated by greenhouse gasses is predominantly absorbed by the ocean. This excess heat has the potential to enhance the intensity of storms and increase the strength of their winds), the ruinous threat unites Southern African countries – mainly, Madagascar, Malawi, Mozambique and Mauritius. According to UN estimates, annual loss caused by tropical cyclones for Madagascar reaches USD 194.58 million, for Mauritius – USD 171.8 million, for Mozambique – USD 38.72 million, for Comoros – USD 36.31 million. Cyclones Idai, Kenneth, Eloise, Gombe and, most recently, Freddy have wreaked havoc on the region. The latter hit twice: in February and in March 2023 and resulted in more than 670 deaths in Malawi and almost 1,500 in Mozambique. The total number of affected people in Mozambique reached 900,000 people. One of the reasons for these consequences is that some citizens did not receive warnings or ignored them.

Given these environmental conditions, countries of the affected region have been developing disaster warning systems for a long time.

Soil degradation

Another area of use of Internet of environment technologies is soil condition monitoring systems. Such systems are extremely necessary e.g. in countries with soils with excessive salinity. It is known that minerals are necessary for plant growth, but in excess they can be toxic for growing fertile crops and lead to lower yields. Therefore, farmers need to clearly identify such soils in order not to use fertilizer types that increase the share of excess elements in the soil.

Such systems make it possible to promptly obtain and analyze information on various chemical properties of the land. It is important to note that such systems make it possible to optimize the use of fertilizers on any territory to reduce costs. A similar technology is offered by the Kenyan company UjuziKilimo. 

In addition, another promising area of ​​technology Internet of Environment in Africa is soil moisture monitoring. In conditions of limited water resources, it is necessary to determine rational volumes of irrigation at the correct times. Stationary humidity sensors with a mechanism for transmitting information to the cloud can help with this. Similar sensors are located on farm plots and are adjusted to different sampling depths. The data sent to the cloud is processed and sent back to the user with the information necessary for irrigation planning. Kenyans have also succeeded in this area – e.g. developments in this area are carried out by the Kenyan company CROPNUTS and Hortitechno Produce and Services Ltd.

Biological diversity

Another area of ​​application of the Internet of environment is the monitoring of biological diversity. Some African countries are facing a threat from wild life. E.g., due to climate change and the consequences of human encroachment into wildlife, there is less fruit on forest trees in Gabon, which is why elephants are more likely to face hunger. Thus, wild elephants often venture onto plantations in search of food. This often leads to conflicts with farmers, who view these large animals as pests that destroy their crops. In some cases, wild elephants may become aggressive and attack humans or their property in search of food.

However, monitoring in this area is complicated by many technical difficulties. For example, the capabilities of camera traps are very limited in forested areas due to vegetation and possible variations in topography. Moreover, some organisms are completely in the air or crawling between stones or sitting in burrows. In this regard, acoustic methods for analyzing terrain and capturing sounds are a potential solution.

Waste management

Anthropogenic factors are essentially one of the elements of the environment. And one of these factors is the garbage produced by people. Often waste collection companies do not collect waste from garbage containers in a timely manner. As a result of this, people begin to place garbage near the container. Then animals begin to drag this garbage all over the street, leading to spreading infections, not to mention the unpleasant odour in the area and other problems caused by pollution. To solve this problem, a project was launched in the capital of Rwanda, Kigali, in 2021 with sensors inside garbage containers constantly monitoring their filling level. When a container is 75% full, the garbage trucks receive a signal to pick up waste from that place. The plan to implement smart waste separation is declared.

Challenge Description

Illicit trade remains an alarming problem for African countries and leads to significant budget losses. Only Tanzania loses 3.3 trillion TZS (1.3 million USD) annually, whilst South Africa — 100 billion ZAR (56 million USD). Nigeria loses about 15 trillion NGN (19 billion USD) to fake goods annually and is ranked amongst the world’s highest markets for fake and substandard goods.

Cigarette trafficking, drug trafficking, and the trafficking of counterfeit goods are the main categories of illicit trade. As illicit trade results in unpaid taxes, illegal tobacco costs governments around the world 40-50 billion USD each year in unpaid tobacco taxes. In West Africa the cost is about 774 million USD, while Nigeria loses an estimated 216 NGN billion (278.5 million USD) to the illicit trade, according to the British American Tobacco (BAT) report.

With fragile health security situation in African countries, fake drugs trafficking is among the most widespread and urgent issues as it results in multiple deaths. Thus, as per the WHO report, Africa comprises 42% of the sham drugs trafficking cases (e.g. in March 2019, the WHO reported fake meningitis vaccines in Niger and fake hypertension drugs in Cameroon, in August – fake antibiotic Augmentin in Uganda and Kenya). Furthermore, in Nigeria, fake malaria medication results in 12,300 deaths annually and costs nearly 893 million USD.

In addition, dissemination of counterfeits leads to lower prices on the markets and consequently revenue losses.

Solutions

To combat circulation of counterfeits governments not only should adopt standards but also introduce effective means of compliance monitoring.

• Digital solutions (like Track & Trace System) make markets clearer and more legitimate and provide full traceability, increase tax revenues, including excise duties, establish transparent supply chains and prevent counterfeit goods from entering the retail market. Among the successfully implemented solutions to mention is the mPedigree in Nigeria.
• Dissemination of illicit goods is often coupled with corruption, thus, developing effective anti-corruption mechanisms is crucial. This may include introducing e-services for reporting corruption cases.
• Since fake goods are often being delivered and distributed along with authentic ones, digital marking of goods would allow the traceability of each unit of goods.

Challenge description

In order to highlight the diverse applications of geospatial technology and showcase its potential to foster sustainable and responsible mining practices across Africa, it is essential to delve into the multifaceted aspects of leveraging geospatial technology, exploring its role in environmental monitoring, operational optimization, community engagement, regulatory compliance, and data analytics. 

Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and remote sensing technologies enable real-time monitoring and assessment of environmental impacts associated with mining activities. These tools facilitate the implementation of mitigation measures to minimize ecological damage. Among the key features of digital applications and automation systems is their ability to enhance operational efficiency and safety by enabling remote monitoring, control of equipment, and optimization of mining processes. What is more, digital platforms and participatory GIS tools foster transparent communication with local communities, empowering them to participate in decision-making processes and address social concerns related to mining activities.

Regarding regulatory compliance, digital permit management systems streamline regulatory processes, ensuring adherence to environmental regulations, and permit conditions, thereby reducing risks of non-compliance and associated penalties. As for data analytics, the advancements in the sphere provide valuable insights into spatial relationships, trends, and patterns, informing strategic decision-making processes and optimizing resource extraction.

Solutions

A number of African countries have already started the implementation of geospatial technology as a means of ameliorating the process of mineral extraction. 

• The Tanzanian government, in collaboration with international organizations and NGOs, is employing geospatial technology to monitor Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining (ASM) sites. GIS and remote sensing technologies are used for real-time monitoring of ASM activities, environmental management, and addressing illegal mining activities.
• Mining companies in Ghana utilize geospatial technology extensively in Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) for large-scale mining operations to assess potential environmental impacts on ecosystems, water resources, and local communities. GIS and remote sensing techniques aid in mapping mining concessions, monitoring land use changes, and assessing habitat fragmentation.
• In South Africa, geospatial technology is utilized for mine rehabilitation and closure planning in the Witwatersrand Goldfields. Mining companies operating in the region use geospatial information to assess the environmental legacy of historical mining activities, plan rehabilitation measures, and restore degraded landscapes. GIS helps identify priority areas for rehabilitation, determine land use options post-mining, and estimate remediation costs.
• The government of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, in collaboration with international organizations, employs geospatial technology to track and certify the origin of conflict minerals. GIS, satellite imagery, and GPS tracking technologies are used to map mining concessions, monitor mineral extraction activities, and ensure transparency in the supply chain. For instance, Kamoya Mining Corporation (KMC) has implemented a comprehensive GIS to enhance its copper and cobalt mining operations in Katanga Province. Geospatial technology supported site selection, environmental monitoring, community engagement, operational efficiency, and safety, thereby improving sustainability and stakeholder engagement.

Challenge Description

Africa’s diverse wildlife constitutes a significant part of the continent’s ecological and cultural heritage. Yet, conservation efforts are increasingly challenged by human activities, habitat degradation, and climate change. Geospatial technologies offer promising solutions to enhance wildlife conservation strategies by providing accurate spatial data for informed decision-making.

Geospatial technologies offer invaluable tools for addressing the complex challenges faced by wildlife conservation in Africa. Through collaborative efforts, innovative projects, and the integration of spatial data, these technologies empower conservationists, policymakers, and local communities to make informed decisions, mitigate threats, and promote sustainable coexistence between humans and wildlife across the continent.

GIS- and GPS-based projects have already been implemented in a number of African countries. 

The Kenyan Save the Elephants’ Elephant Collaring Program employs GPS collars equipped with satellite tracking capabilities to monitor the movements of collared elephants in real-time. This data helps researchers understand elephant migration patterns, identify key corridors, and assess habitat use, aligning with the objectives of the Elephant Crisis Fund’s Collaring for Coexistence Program.

The University of Minnesota Lion Center’s Serengeti Lion Project in Tanzania utilizes Geographic Information Systems (GIS) to analyze lion movement data collected from GPS collars. GIS allows researchers to map lion territories, identify important habitat areas, and assess connectivity between lion populations across the Serengeti ecosystem, supporting the IUCN’s Land and Water Use Planning for Wildlife Corridors.

In South Africa, tThe Greater Kruger Carnivore Project initiated by the University of Pretoria employs GIS to analyze GPS tracking data from collared carnivores, including lions, leopards, and hyenas. Spatial analysis techniques help researchers identify overlap zones, potential conflict areas with humans, and corridors connecting different parts of the landscape, corresponding with the objectives of Transboundary Conservation Areas.

International involvement

The African Wildlife Foundation’s Spatial Monitoring and Reporting Tool (SMART) is a geospatial tool designed to track wildlife movements and monitor poaching activities across protected areas in Africa. SMART integrates GPS data from collared animals with satellite imagery and other geospatial layers to identify key wildlife corridors, detect threats, and inform conservation interventions.

The Elephant Crisis Fund supports the Collaring for Coexistence Program, which focuses on collaring elephants and other wildlife species to track their movements and understand their habitat requirements. Geospatial information generated from these collaring efforts helps identify critical migration routes, hotspots of human-wildlife conflict, and areas in need of conservation attention.

The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) leads a project that aims to enhance the conservation of wildlife corridors in Eastern and Southern Africa through integrated land and water use planning. Geospatial information is used to identify and prioritize wildlife corridors, assess land use conflicts, and develop land management strategies that support both human livelihoods and biodiversity conservation.

Solutions

• Transboundary Conservation Areas

Transboundary conservation initiatives, such as the Kavango Zambezi Transfrontier Conservation Area (KAZA TFCA) and the Great Limpopo Transfrontier Park, emphasize the importance of maintaining connectivity between protected areas to facilitate wildlife movement across national borders. Geospatial information is crucial for delineating transboundary conservation areas, identifying critical wildlife corridors, and coordinating conservation efforts among multiple stakeholders.

• Satellite-Based Wildlife Monitoring

Satellite imagery and remote sensing technology can be used to monitor changes in land cover and habitat fragmentation that affect animal movement routes. For instance, the technology has already been implemented by the Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS). By analyzing satellite data, WCS and other conservation groups can identify threats to wildlife corridors, prioritize conservation interventions, and advocate for land use policies that support landscape connectivity.